Comparative anatomy remains the basis of any taxonomic determination. Both the dental and skeletal morphology of living species generally help us to identify fossil specimens, in particular those dating to the Quaternary since these are morphologically little different from their living representatives. In order to undertake studies of Quaternary vertebrates, the ideal would be to have our library and osteological reference collection constantly at arms reach. Unfortunately this is rarely the case and few of us are lucky enough to be near a museum collection containing all the required taxa. Computer developments in the last two decades and access to the world of images now provide us with instant access to such collections. It is with this in mind that we present this picture library of living species of terrestrial carnivores.

The initial impetus for this was personal - to have a set of photographic referentials of various parts of the skeleton of different species. With the recent improvements in digital photography and the treatment of images, as well as benefiting from a period of study in the National Museum of Kenya in Nairobi (Department of Osteology), I dedicated a considerable amount of time photographing "everywhere" (and without always paying sufficient attention to their quality). I photographed different skeletons of carnivores which can aid in comparative studies of Pleistocene faunas mainly in Europe and, to a lesser extent, in Africa. I was also able to complete this collection of images thanks to the collections in the Zooarchaeology lab (in CIPA) of the Portuguese Institute of Archaeology in Lisbon and to my specimens kept in the UMR 6636 of the Mediterranean House of Human Sciences in Aix-en-Provence, France.

Content of the picture library

This project has produced 2160 images belonging to 17 species in 14 genera, and 26 individuals. Most are Canoidea (Ursidae, Canidae, Mustelidae) and Feloidea (Felidae, Hyaenidae). In the expectation that this “bank of images” could also serve the community, I decided to make it available on the World Wide Web. The images are accessible in the photo gallery.

Here are the details of how they are organised (see the Excel table entitled ’Species list’):
 Ursidae : Ursus arctos, brown bear
 Canidae : Canis lupus, wolf ; Canis mesomelas, jackal ; Vulpes vulpes, red fox ; Lycaon pictus, wild dog
 Mustelidae : Gulo gulo, wolverine ; Meles meles, european badger ; Mellivora capensis, honey badger ; Lutra lutra, otter
 Felidae : Panthera leo, lion ; Panthera pardus, leopard ; Acinonyx jubatus, cheetah ; Lynx lynx, boreal lynx ; Lynx caracal, caracal ; Felis silvestris, wild cat
 Hyenidae : Crocuta crocuta, spotted hyena ; Hyaena hyaena, striped hyena.

I have not included the Viverridae (such as genet, mongoose), small carnivores (such as Felis, Martes, etc.) and some taxa such as the polar fox Alopex lagopus, the dhole Cuon alpinus, and numerous African Mustelidae (Ictonyx, Aonyx) are still missing. Moreover some fossil taxa such as the cave bear Ursus spelaeus, or the hyena and the cave lion, Etruscan wolf Canis etruscus, ... and Pleistocene carnivores of Eurasia remain unphotographed.

Objectives

This is the first version of January 2006 in a somewhat preliminary form. I plan to make supplements available in the near future and also hope to improve the quality and re-size certain photos, as well as standardise backgrounds, adjust scales, improve the details in many of the captions, inverse by ‘mirror effect’ left elements, prepare comparative plates, remove pink background (hands), etc ... . Many of these changes can in fact be undertaken by the user if he/she so desires. At this early stage I have included several rather blurred photos! At any rate, this ’product’ should represent a significant help...

The creation of this picture library had several objectives. Its first aim was to show the general morphology of the skeleton and teeth of an adult specimen, male if possible; and of course, have images which can aid systematic determinations. By clarifying morphological characters or portions of skeletons; create, eventually a database to show comparisons with the aim of publication (anatomical plates) or to use in Powerpoint presentations; and, finally, the images can serve in the construction of outline drawings and plans.

Technical details

The digital photos were taken with a Nikon CoolPix 4500 in natural light (JPEG format). We tried to multiply views; the skull and mandible as well as every long bone were photographed in their entirety from different angles and from all sides (with the exception sometimes of the fibula and the distal extremity of the ulna), but also in detail for the extremities according to five standard views (anterior, posterior, lateral, medial, superior). Right elements of skeletons were photographed. Carpal and tarsal bones and phalanges were often combined in the same photograph, although the astragalus and the calcaneum are generally shown separately. The axial skeleton, with the exception of the first two vertebrae (atlas and axis) and the sacrum were dealt with in less detail.

Condition of use

The documents presented on this site are protected by the code of intellectual property (article L122-5). Taking notes, making copies and printing are exclusively authorised for private use and are not destined for a collective use. Any reproduction of text, photos, cards or plans, is possible only within the framework of the right of short quotation and with the exact and complete references of the author and the work. Additionally, the right of communication excludes beneficiaries or third parties reproducing, distributing or using the images for commercial purposes (law N 78-753 of July 17th, 1978, art. 10).

Subject to this legal definition the author has made these images available on the web and authorises their free use for scientific, educational or media purposes subject to their source being recognised and quoted, as follows: Brugal J. Ph. 2006. Anatomy of the Skeleton of large and average present-day terrestrial carnivores: Photographic library (version 1). 2160 digital images (distributed by the author) on the site www.archeozoo.org.

Thanks

I would like to thank the National Museum of Kenya, in particular the Department of Osteology, managed by Ogeto Mwebi. The collections of this department are among the most important and even include specimens from beyond Africa. This work was undertaken within the framework of the ‘West Turkana Archeological Project’ co-directed by Hélène Roche and Mzaelendo Kibunjia. This mission is a part of the Prehistoric Mission in Kenya of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. I also wish to thank Simon Davis, Marta Moreno-García and Carlos Pimenta who have built up the osteological reference collection of the Zooarchaeology laboratory of the Portuguese Institute of Archaeology in Lisbon (Portugal) and who made available specimens. Finally, I thank Philippe Fosse for his loan of a specimen of lynx.